Fluoride Removal Efficiency of Calcium-spiked and Non-spiked <i>Moringa Oleifera </i>Seed Powder

Fluoride contamination in drinking water remains a widespread public health concern, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where groundwater is the primary source of potable water. Chronic exposure to elevated fluoride levels—commonly above the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended limit of 1.5 mg/L—can result in dental and skeletal fluorosis, affecting millions of people globally. Affordable and effective defluoridation technologies are urgently needed, especially in low-income rural settings. In this study, the fluoride removal efficiency of calcium-spiked and non-spiked <i>Moringa oleifera </i>seed powder was investigated through controlled laboratory batch adsorption experiments. Biosorbents were prepared by treating ground seed powder with 1% calcium chloride solution and characterised based on their performance across five fluoride concentrations (1-20 ppm). Key parameters such as removal efficiency, residual fluoride levels, and adsorption capacity (q<sub>e</sub>) were evaluated under consistent operating conditions (pH 7, 2 g/50 mL dose, mesh 40, 120 minutes). Results indicated that calcium-spiked <i>Moringa oleifera </i>powder significantly outperformed its non-spiked counterpart. At 1 ppm, the spiked adsorbent achieved 94.35 ± 1.15% removal efficiency, compared to 81.45 ± 1.35% for the non-spiked. At the highest tested concentration (20 ppm), the spiked biosorbent still removed 72.31 ± 1.80% of fluoride, while the non-spiked removed only 54.21 ± 1.95%. Linear regression models showed strong inverse correlations between fluoride concentration and removal efficiency (R<sup>2</sup> > 0.99, <i>p</i> < 0.001). The spiked adsorbent also resulted in significantly lower residual fluoride concentrations, with final values closer to the WHO guideline. One-way ANOVA confirmed significant differences in adsorption capacity and efficiency between treatments (<i>p</i> < 0.001). These findings highlight the effectiveness of calcium modification in enhancing biosorption performance and suggest that calcium-spiked <i>Moringa oleifera </i>seed powder is a promising, low-cost, and environmentally friendly solution for mitigating fluoride contamination in drinking water.