Habitat and seasonal drivers of leukocyte profiles within and across Neotropical bat species

Land conversion is a widespread form of environmental change that can alter infection dynamics in wildlife by modifying host immune defence. Such effects may be compounded by seasonal variation in resources and reproduction and differ among members of a host community, yet the combined effects of habitat, season and species identity on wildlife immunity remain poorly understood. We tested within- and across-species effects of land conversion and seasonality on immunity in Neotropical bats by quantifying haematological markers of physiological stress and inflammation. We sampled seven species across a large forest preserve and smaller nearby forest fragment in northern Belize during the dry and wet seasons. Using phylogenetic generalized linear mixed models, we tested overall effects of habitat and season and quantified per-species impacts. Total leukocyte counts and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios showed no overall habitat or seasonal effects but displayed strong species-specific responses to these predictors. In contrast, the systemic inflammation response index was higher across species in the dry season and in the smaller fragment, suggesting poor health in unfavourable conditions. Species-specific effects did not align with diet guilds, indicating potential roles for finer-scale ecological traits. Our results highlight the complex, species-dependent effects of environmental change on wildlife immunity.