Forged in Crises

Abstract This article examines how the European Union ( EU ) has developed its cyber diplomacy through adaptive learning in response to various types of crisis. Based on a decade of direct involvement in EU cyber policy (2013–2024), it identifies three learning mechanisms: inferential learning from slow-burning threats, contingent learning from fast-burning crises such as the war in Ukraine and ‘failing forward’ through multilateral processes such as at the United Nations. The article argues that the EU ’s cyber diplomacy has matured through incremental institutional, policy and operational changes, despite ongoing challenges including fragmented governance and limited political leadership. By analysing the evolution of tools such as the Cyber Diplomacy Toolbox and efforts in cyber capacity building and military–cyber co-operation, the article shows how crisis-driven learning has shaped the EU ’s global role in cyberspace. It concludes that further progress will require stronger internal co-ordination and high-level political engagement to sustain the EU ’s influence in global cyber governance.