Individual and well-being factors associated with social chatbot usage: A six-country study

An increasing number of people are engaging with artificial intelligence–based conversation agents such as social chatbots. The aim of this study was to investigate individual characteristics and well-being factors associated with the use of social chatbots as a form of friendship. We collected cross-national surveys from adults in Finland ( N = 1,095), France ( N = 1,014), Germany ( N = 900), Ireland ( N = 588), Italy ( N = 1,099), and Poland ( N = 967) in autumn 2023. Measures included social chatbot usage, general positive attitudes toward new technologies, frequency of face-to-face social contact, psychological distress, loneliness, self-esteem, and sociodemographic factors. We analyzed the data using logistic and linear regression analyses. The results showed that of the participants, 12.24% (Finland), 14.69% (France), 9.67% (Germany), 8.67% (Ireland), 17.93% (Italy), and 12.72% (Poland) were social chatbot users. Users of social chatbots were younger than nonusers in all country samples. In the regression models, social chatbot usage was positively associated with psychological distress across the six countries, with loneliness in France, Germany, Italy, and Poland, and with higher self-esteem in France. The results indicate that social chatbot usage is most consistently linked with younger age and psychological distress, suggesting that these tools may serve as an additional social resource for younger individuals. However, the usage does not necessarily contribute to improved well-being in the way social chatbot tools are intended to. Although social chatbot use was associated with higher self-esteem in France, their use may highlight more negative than positive outcomes overall.