Spatial distribution and association patterns of dominant tree species in natural stands of Terminalia leiocarpa (DC.) Baill. across phytogeographical districts in Benin

• This study modelled native species spatial patterns for reducing reliance on exotics • The g(r) functions and the Kernel density estimate were applied • T. leiocarpa shaped associations with I. doka, P. africana, P. erinaceus, V. paradoxa • Observed elevation-influenced patterns indicate plantings at elevation-aware spacings • Planting spacing of 5-8 m or 10-15 m can be used when growing these species together African forests, particularly open forests, face major threats from human activities and climate change, causing biodiversity loss and ecosystem service decline. Forest landscape restoration (FLR) in Benin, West Africa, joins global efforts at the cost of exotic species invasion. Studies on species spatial patterns (SSP) can help conservationists, tree growers and forest managers manage species populations by matching native tree plantings to ecological requirements. This study modelled SSP for Terminalia leiocarpa ( Anogeissus leiocarpa ) natural stands to understand population coexistence and reduce reliance on exotic species such as Gmelina arborea, Acacia auriculiformis, Anacardium occidentale and Mangifera indica for FLR. Data were collected within 3-ha plots across four phytogeographical districts, with varied elevation (116.65-318.51 m). Tree presence, dominance, and spatial arrangements were recorded. Data were analysed using point process theory, focusing on Ripley’s K-function and its allies. Aggregated distributions of T. leiocarpa and Isoberlinia doka dominated and declined with increased elevation. Prosopis africana, Pterocarpus erinaceus and Vitellaria paradoxa were aggregated at smaller distances. These species displayed different association patterns with T. leiocarpa , depending on the species and phytogeographical districts. Specific species pairs demonstrated positive associations such as T. leiocarpa × P. africana and T. leiocarpa × V. paradoxa . The associations suggest that these species should be grown together with 5-8 m or 10-15 m planting spacing, matching their aggregation distances. Our findings support the promotion of mixed plantations incorporating native species, adapted to local conditions, to improve productivity and functionality in open forests and other landscapes, benefiting biodiversity conservation and community livelihoods.