Complex thinking in the Philippine higher education: analysis of its hierarchical structure through structural equation modeling

Purpose This study aims to evaluate the development of complex thinking among Filipino university students and to validate a hierarchical measurement model for this competency, which is essential for navigating the country's digital, economic, and sustainability challenges. Design/methodology/approach The eComplexity instrument was applied to a sample of 205 students from diverse disciplines. Structural equation modeling (SEM) with Diagonally Weighted Least Squares (DWLS) estimation was used, suitable for ordinal data. The model included four subdimensions: systemic, scientific, critical, and innovative thinking. Findings Results showed excellent model fit (CFI = 0.992, TLI = 0.991, SRMR = 0.066), high reliability (CR = 0.837–0.912), and strong explained variance. Scientific thinking emerged as the most solid subdimension, while critical and innovative thinking revealed lower item consistency, indicating areas for pedagogical improvement. Research limitations/implications The study's scope is limited by its sample size and institutional context, restricting the generalizability of results. Future research should include longitudinal studies and expanded samples to explore disciplinary and institutional variations in complex thinking development. Practical implications The findings underscore the need to reinforce critical and innovative thinking through pedagogical strategies that promote metacognition and real-world problem-solving. This can guide curriculum reforms in Philippine higher education aimed at building transversal competencies. Originality/value This study offers empirical validation of a hierarchical model for complex thinking and provides actionable insights for integrating this competency into higher education. It contributes to educational transformation by aligning curriculum development with national and global demands.