Health and economic impacts of PM2.5 exposure: A case study of pollution-related effects in Hanoi, Vietnam

Exposure to PM 2.5 pollution in Hanoi at the WHO threshold of 15 μg/m 3 led to significantly more premature deaths than under Vietnam's 50 μg/m 3 standard, especially from respiratory diseases. In 2023, economic losses reached 6.3 % of the city's GRDP, highlighting serious health and financial impacts. The study revealed seasonal, gender, and district-level differences, with mortality peaking in Quarter 1 and a slight female predominance. These findings underscore the urgent need for stricter air quality standards and effective pollution control to protect public health and reduce economic burden.