Sonochemically enhanced activated charcoal with improved oral palatability for efficient in vitro detoxification of acetaminophen

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is a major cause of drug-induced liver injury, underscoring the urgent need for detoxification agents that are both effective and suitable for oral administration. In this study, we developed a novel activated charcoal (UA-AChar) derived from Calligonum comosum wood, employing ammonium chloride-assisted chemical activation combined with ultrasonic treatment. The resulting material demonstrated an exceptionally high specific surface area (1531 m²/g), a mesoporous structure with a pore size of 2.20 nm, and a rich functional group composition containing both oxygen and nitrogen, all of which significantly enhance its adsorption performance. UA-AChar demonstrated high adsorption efficiency, achieving 89% and 86% removal of APAP within 15 min at pH 1.2 and 7.5, respectively, with a dosage of 0.4 g/L and an initial APAP concentration of 50 mg/L. In equilibrium studies at higher concentrations (500 mg/L), the maximum adsorption capacities reached 787.5 mg/g at pH 1.2 and 725 mg/g at pH 7.5. The experimental data were best described by the Freundlich isotherm, indicating multilayer adsorption on heterogeneous surfaces. Kinetic analysis revealed that the adsorption process followed a pseudo-second-order model. UA-AChar was incorporated into yogurt, ice cream, and honey to improve its oral acceptability. The addition of these flavoring agents preserved the adsorption efficiency within a clinically acceptable range (≤ 7% reduction), underscoring their potential to enhance palatability. Consequently, UA-AChar presents a promising and effective solution for managing APAP overdose, offering a patient-friendly approach to oral detoxification.