Tracing the evolution of soil conservation in China: A review of historical insights and modern practices

Soil conservation is a critical environmental challenge faced by countries worldwide. This paper provides an innovative and comprehensive review of China’s soil conservation journey, offering new insights into policy evolution, governance mechanisms, and stakeholder participation. Driven by severe soil erosion, land degradation, and the need to balance agricultural productivity with environmental sustainability, China’s soil conservation efforts have progressed through three stages: the ‘Exploration Stage’ (1950s–1980s), which developed key measures such as terracing, dams, and afforestation; the ‘Integrated Management Stage’ (1980s–2000s), balancing soil conservation with socio-economic development; and the ‘Ecological Restoration and Sustainable Development Stage’ (2000s–present), prioritizing ecological restoration and sustainable small watershed management. Since 2005, the coverage of soil conservation projects has expanded nationwide, including both government-led and privately funded construction projects. These efforts have substantially reduced soil erosion: the annual soil erosion area decreased by ∼28% (3.66 → 2.63 million km 2 ), and the annual erosion volume declined by ∼47% (11.24 → 5.94 billion tons) between 1985 and 2023. The analysis highlights that meaningful conservation outcomes typically require 10–20 years of sustained effort. Over this period, stakeholders have increasingly prioritized environmental protection, sustainable development, and technical inputs, with the public placing additional emphasis on the proper and transparent use of government funds. By examining both policy- and project-level footprints across the three stages, the findings underscore the importance of multi-faceted approaches that combine policy interventions, technological innovations, incentives, and public engagement, offering lessons for global soil conservation initiatives and adaptive strategies under emerging environmental challenges.