Trade-offs and synergies in organic vegetable systems: strengthening the food–nutrient–energy–carbon nexus under the climate crisis

Amid growing pressures on agri-food security, nutrient supply, energy demand, and climate mitigation, this study investigates the trade-offs and synergies of organic bio-intensified vegetable-based cropping systems (BiVBCS) in optimizing the food-nutrient-energy-carbon nexus. Five year field study evaluated six BiVBCS under two varying growing environments (VGEs), such as low-cost poly tunnels (LcPT) versus open field conditions (OC), within the context of OF (organic farming). The result showed that coriander-radish-coriander-radish-coriander-radish (cropping systems-CS 4 ) grown under LcPT significantly increased (+31%) system productivity (SP). The LcPT achieved the highest system production efficiency (SPE) (320.6 kg ha -1 day -1 ) and system profitability ($70.20 ha -1 day -1 ) compared to OC (open conditions). BiVBCS with CS 5 (cabbage-broccoli-local rayosaag-coriander) recorded the highest system production efficiency ($316.50 ha -1 day -1 ). CS 1 had the highest system profitability ($74.50 ha -1 day -1 ). Among the cropping systems, CS 6 (cabbage-broccoli-local rayosaag-coriander) demonstrated the highest energy gross return (250.9 × 10 3 MJ ha -1 ), net energy return (225 × 10 3 MJ ha -1 ), energy use efficiency (9.67), energy profitability (8.67), and specific energy (0.61). Soil health improved under LcPT, with a 3.93% decrease in bulk density, ∼26% increase in soil aggregates, ∼14% increase in soil organic carbon (SOC), and enhancements in nutrients (15.3%) and soil enzymatic activity (15.5%). At BiVBCS with CS 1 recorded ∼5% reduction in bulk density and significant increases in soil aggregates (25.8%), nutrients availability (∼24%) and enzymatic activities (∼30.4%). LcPT improved climate-related indicators such as increased carbon pool index (CPI) by 6.48%, and CMI by 10.7% over open condition. CS 1 showed the 9.7% higher CMI and 8.4% CPI over others. Overall, this study highlights that adopting low-cost poly tunnels (LcPT) in bio-intensified vegetable-based cropping systems (BiVBCS) under organic farming (OF) are a sustainable, energy-efficient, and profitable approach for improving productivity, soil health, carbon management, and energy use in the North Eastern Indian Himalayas. • LcPT-CS4 improved system productivity by 31% with 320.6 kg ha -1 day -1 SPE. • CS1 showed highest profitability at $74.5 ha -1 day -1 with 25.8% soil aggregation. • CS6 achieved top energy return (250.9×10 3 MJ ha -1 ) and efficiency (9.67). • LcPT enhanced soil health with 14% SOC and 25.6% soil aggregate increase. • CS1 raised CMI by 9.7% and CPI by 8.4%, boosting carbon management resilience.