MXene-based hybrid nanofluids in pulsating heat pipes: Advanced thermal management for photovoltaic efficiency enhancement and economic analysis

Efficient thermal management remains a critical limitation for photovoltaic (PV) panels operating under high solar irradiance, where temperature rises can reduce electrical efficiency by up to 0.5% per °C. This study introduces and experimentally validates, for the first time, a dual pulsating heat pipe (PHP) cooling system employing eco-friendly MXene-based hybrid nanofluids, specifically MXene–reduced graphene oxide (MXene-rGO) and MXene–copper oxide (MXene-CuO), as advanced working media. Outdoor experiments evaluated thermal, electrical, exergy, and economic performance at low nanoparticle concentrations (0.1 and 0.2 wt.%). At 0.2 wt.%, MXene-rGO enhanced PV electrical efficiency by 12.1%, exergy efficiency by 7.6%, and reduced thermal resistance by 44% relative to an uncooled panel. MXene-CuO achieved corresponding improvements of 8.6% and 4.8%, confirming strong heat transfer synergy between MXene and metal or carbon components. Economic evaluation demonstrated long-term feasibility, with a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of 0.107 $/kWh and a net present value (NPV) of $287, indicating a favorable cost–performance balance. The proposed MXene-based PHP concept establishes a new pathway for passive and sustainable PV thermal management, offering the first integrated experimental, exergy, and techno-economic assessment of hybrid nanofluid cooling for real outdoor PV operation. • MXene-based nanofluids enhance PV cooling via pulsating heat pipes. • MXene-CuO (0.2 wt.%) boosts PV efficiency by 8.58%, MXene-rGO by 12.06%. • MXene-rGO (0.2 wt.%) increases exergy efficiency by 7.63%, MXene-CuO by 4.75% • MXene-CuO (0.2 wt.%) reduces PV thermal resistance by 32.98%, MXene-rGO by 46.94%. • MXene-CuO and MXene-rGO nanofluids boost long-term PV performance and savings.