Economic gains with social pains: Migration patterns and their consequences among internal migrants in China

This study examines the associations between migration patterns and consequences of economic and non-economic among China's internal migrants. Through Latent Class Analysis, we identify three migration patterns: Individual Short-Term Labor Migration (ISTL), First-Time Family Migration (FFM), and Multiple-Step Family Migration (MFM). These patterns emerge consistently across both rural-to-urban and urban-to-urban migration flows, yet demonstrate systematically different associations with migrant outcomes. Our analysis reveals that ISTL migration is associated with significantly higher income levels but lower sense of belonging, while FFM migration shows the opposite pattern—associated with reduced income but enhanced sense of belonging. MFM represents an intermediate strategy balancing both objectives. Notably, among rural ISTL migrants, higher income appears to partially offset the negative association between individual migration and sense of belonging, suggesting complex interaction effects. The findings illuminate systematic trade-offs between economic gains and social integration in China's internal migration system, demonstrating that migrants face strategic choices between maximizing immediate economic returns and fostering long-term social attachments. These patterns persist even after controlling for demographic characteristics, hukou status, and destination city factors, indicating that migration strategies themselves play a crucial role in shaping migration outcomes. The research contributes to migration theory by revealing how different migration patterns create different opportunity structures for economic and social advancement, with important implications for understanding migrant adaptation strategies and designing targeted policy interventions that address the diverse needs of China's internal migrants.