Runtime composition in dynamic system of systems: A systematic review of challenges, solutions, tools, and evaluation methods

• Reviews runtime composition in the dynamic System of Systems (SoS) • Identifies key challenges: modeling, orchestration, resilience, heterogeneity • Synthesizes seven solution strategies from recent SoS literature • Maps tools and evaluation methods used in runtime SoS research • Reveals gaps in integration, benchmarking, and socio-technical alignment Modern Systems of Systems (SoSs) increasingly operate in dynamic environments (e.g., smart cities, autonomous vehicles) where runtime composition —the on-the-fly discovery, integration, and coordination of constituent systems (CSs)—is crucial for adaptability. Despite growing interest, the literature lacks a cohesive synthesis of runtime composition in dynamic SoSs. This study synthesizes research on runtime composition in dynamic SoSs and identifies core challenges, solution strategies, supporting tools, and evaluation methods. We conducted a Systematic Literature Review (SLR), screening 1,774 studies published between 2019 and 2024 and selecting 80 primary studies for thematic analysis (TA). Challenges fall into four categories: modeling and analysis, resilient operations, system orchestration, and heterogeneity of CSs. Solutions span seven areas: co-simulation and digital twins, semantic ontologies, integration frameworks, adaptive architectures, middleware, formal methods, and AI-driven resilience. Service-oriented frameworks for composition and integration dominate tooling, while simulation platforms support evaluation. Interoperability across tools, limited cross-toolchain workflows, and the absence of standardized benchmarks remain key gaps. Evaluation approaches include simulation-based, implementation-driven, and human-centered studies, which have been applied in domains such as smart cities, healthcare, defense, and industrial automation. The synthesis reveals tensions, including autonomy versus coordination, the modeling-reality gap, and socio-technical integration. It calls for standardized evaluation metrics, scalable decentralized architectures, and cross-domain frameworks. The analysis aims to guide researchers and practitioners in developing and implementing dynamically composable SoSs.