Developing Artificial Intelligence Literacy Through Mixed Unplugged and Plugged-in Activities in Primary Education

Artificial Intelligence (AI) education has become increasingly important as it is a key component of digital literacy that everyone should possess. However, this domain remains largely unexplored, especially at the primary school level. The purpose of this study is to examine whether combined unplugged and plugged-in activities can be more effective than solely plugged-in activities in enhancing AI literacy among primary school students. A repeated-measurement quasi-experimental study with a control group was conducted among 56 fourth-grade students. There were three learning phases for the intervention: in Phase 1, both the experimental group (EG) and control group (CG) received the same AI introduction lessons; in Phase 2, the EG engaged in unplugged activities and the CG engaged in plugged-in activities; and in Phase 3, both groups worked with plugged-in activities. We measured AI literacy development through an AI self-efficacy scale and a drawing assessment which were administered after each phase. In between and after the instruction, it is concluded that the inclusion of unplugged activities effectively improved students’ AI self-efficacy in a short period; mixed unplugged and plugged-in activities were beneficial for promoting students’ perception of AI. These findings offer some practical implications for AI education in primary schools, and educators need to strategically integrate both unplugged and plugged-in activities, optimizing their timing and sequence to maximize students’ AI learning performance.