Crowding-out and crowding-in effects of out-of-pocket expenditures for non-communicable diseases care on household consumption patterns in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional analysis of the 2022 household income and expenditure survey

This research demonstrates that NCD-related spending in Bangladesh reduces budgets for both food and non-food expenditures, with a stronger crowding-out effect on food items and rent, particularly in lower-income households. Effective financial and social protection mechanisms against NCDs are warranted to safeguard the consumption of the NCD-affected households in Bangladesh.