Exploring the Therapeutic Potential and Toxicological Risks of Four Ethnomedicinal Plants from Hakkâri (Southeastern Turkey): A First Comprehensive Analytical and Microstructural Evaluation

Medicinal plants have long been used for therapeutic purposes in the mountainous Hakkâri region of southeastern Türkiye. This study presents an integrated toxicological risk and therapeutic assessment of four ethnomedicinal species-<i>Daphne mucronata</i> Royle, <i>Ferula communis</i> L., <i>Heracleum persicum</i> Desf., and <i>Tragopogon coloratus</i> C.A.Mey-based on their flavonoid and phenolic composition, elemental content, and antioxidant capacity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to integrate multiple analytical platforms-including HPLC, ICP-OES, AAS, UV-Vis spectrophotometry, and SEM/EDX-to assess both the therapeutic potential and toxicological risks of these ethnomedicinal species. Although a complete phytochemical profile was not the objective of this study, selected phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity were evaluated to highlight bioactivity, while heavy metal-based risk assessment was prioritized given public health relevance. Antioxidant capacity was measured using DPPH, ABTS, and CUPRAC assays, while human health risks were quantified through Estimated Daily Consumption (EDC), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), Hazard Index (HI), and Carcinogenic Risk (CR). The results revealed a dual nature: <i>Heracleum persicum</i> exhibited the strongest antioxidant activity, correlating with its high phenolic content, while <i>Daphne mucronata</i> showed elevated toxic metals exceeding WHO/FAO thresholds. Overall, the findings emphasize the importance of combining ethnobotanical knowledge with robust analytical tools for safe medicinal plant usage.