Unsafe harbours: Typhoons and local shipping in the late Spanish Philippines

Vessels of every kind, from ocean-going liners and steamers to sailing ships and local craft, plied the waters of the Philippine archipelago in the late nineteenth century, providing the only means of timely and cost-effective travel to destinations within, between and beyond the islands. Yet the vulnerability of this maritime world to typhoons remains little studied, even though ships at anchor were often as exposed to cyclonic winds as those at sea. Drawing on contemporary newspapers, published letters and official reports, this article examines the typhoon season of 1881 as a case study through which to explore the wider history of storm-related losses in Philippine shipping and the damages inflicted on vessels and crews. More than a human tragedy, these disasters also carried far-reaching economic and environmental consequences, underscoring the centrality of maritime risk in the everyday life of the archipelago.