Column experiment reveals high natural attenuation potential for toluene in iron-rich aquifers but significant concomitant secondary Fe pollution risk

Results demonstrated that iron-reducing consortia (notably Thiobacillus and Pseudomonas) drove > 99% toluene degradation within 10 cm flow distance, effectively containing plume migration. However, Fe(III) reduction generated Fe(II) predominantly (98%) as immobile solid-phase minerals, with only 1%-2% manifesting as dissolved Fe²⁺. This dissolved fraction accumulated progressively across space and time, exceeding China's groundwater quality threshold (0.3 mg/L) at 90% of monitoring points by experiment termination despite near-complete toluene removal. The study confirms that iron-rich aquifers provide significant natural attenuation capacity for petroleum hydrocarbons but concurrently pose substantial secondary contamination risks through highly mobile Fe²⁺ generation. Therefore, it is recommended to include solidphase ferrous iron [Fe(II)] as an indicator in natural attenuation assessments and to take into account biogeochemical by-products such as Fe²⁺ in risk assessment efforts.