Second Responders – The Unsung Heroes in Emergency Management

Abstract Second responders, defined as comprising trained municipal employees, government organizations, the military, construction workers, nonprofits, and untrained volunteers, play vital roles in disaster response. They assist by distributing supplies, clearing debris, providing shelter, and offering medical and psychological support. While first responders have been widely studied and celebrated as heroes, second responders have received limited scholarly attention despite their significant contributions. This article employs emergent norm theory and the altruistic community model to examine how second responders participate in emergency management. It examines three purposely selected major disasters – the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Hurricane Katrina, and Hurricane Sandy – to illustrate the roles and importance of second responders. Findings reveal that, although negative behaviors such as role abandonment and looting can occur, disaster situations often foster emergent norms that create altruistic communities, motivating volunteerism among second responders. The study emphasizes that emergency management agencies should cultivate a culture of volunteering and educate communities about the value of sharing their human capital and committing to doing so well in advance of disasters striking. By doing so, communities can strengthen their resilience and ensure effective collaboration between first and second responders during crises.