What Drives the Use of Highly Hazardous Pesticides and Farmers’ Beliefs About Crop Contamination in Punjab, Pakistan? Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Public Health

Pesticides are extensively used in agriculture to improve crop yields and protect against pests. However, the excessive and indiscriminate application of highly hazardous pesticides (HHPs) poses serious threats to farmers, the environment, and consumer health-risks that are particularly acute in developing countries where awareness of pesticide hazards is limited. Using farm household-level survey data, this study investigates the factors that drive the use of HHP and farmers' beliefs about crop contamination in Punjab, Pakistan. Ordered logistic regression models were applied for analysis. Results show that media exposure, participation in Farmer Field Schools (FFS), perceived effectiveness, and yield-maximization intent significantly increase the likelihood of HHP use. Retailer recommendations also have a positive influence (β = 0.495, p < 0.05), while farmers' awareness of pesticide risks reduces usage (β = -0.432, p < 0.05). Beliefs about crop contamination are positively influenced by education level, media exposure, FFS participation, and label reading, whereas retailer advice exerted a strong negative influence (β = -0.850, p < 0.01). Overall, farmers demonstrated limited knowledge of pesticide hazards, with 76% and 71% of farmers citing yield gains and economic necessity, respectively, as their primary motivations for HHP use. These findings highlight the need for targeted policy interventions and institutional support to raise awareness of pesticide-related health risks and to promote safer, more sustainable agricultural practices.