Unmarked Yet Marked: Baldwin’s Resonance in the Works of Khakpour, Nafisi, Mirakhor and Hakakian

Compelled to construct their narratives and writings around their racial identity, Iranian American writers such as Khakpour, Nafisi, Mirakhor, and Hakakian turn to African American activism, rhetoric, and literature to challenge their racialization. This racialization is problematized by Iranians’ perception of themselves as white and by the US official classification of Iranians as white, revealing a contradiction between the racialization act and the official designation. Seeking to resist their racial marginalization, these writers find the activism and literary expressions of James Baldwin appealing to their experience due to his racial transcendentalism, engagement with the immigration experience, and moderate critique of racial dynamics and power structures. This article focuses on the influence of Baldwin, rather than a broader range of African American writers, examining how his rhetorical strategies and racial politics are reflected in the essays, interviews, and critical writings of the aforementioned Iranian American authors. However, the broader historical context will be discussed to contextualize Baldwin’s appeal to them. Drawing on racial formation theory as a theoretical framework, the article explores how Baldwin serves as a rhetorical and literary model through which these writers articulate their ambiguous racial positioning. Baldwin’s work offers them a vocabulary through which they can articulate their ambiguous position in American racial discourse. This engagement with Baldwin is significant since it serves as a model for the kind of relationship that they may build with other marginalized groups, including African Americans, while also expressing their desire to redefine their place within US racial hierarchies.