Occurrence and human health risk assessment of neonicotinoid residues and essential and non-essential metals in commercial honey obtained from stores in South Africa

Despite the health, nutritional, and therapeutic benefits of honey, it can pose significant food safety and health risks to consumers due to contamination. Sample extraction for the selected neonicotinoids (NEOs) in honey was performed using the Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS) and ultrasonication methods, followed by high-performance liquid chromatography with a photodiode array detector (HPLC-DAD) for quantitative analysis of NEOs. The honey samples were digested using a microwave-assisted system, while the levels of selected metals were determined using a hydrodynamic chromatography–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Method validation for NEOs included assessments of trueness and precision, with results ranging from 6.25 % to 9.67 % (trueness) and 7.88 % to 14.55 % (pooled precision). The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) ranged from 0.30 to 1.12 μg/L and 0.98 to 3.73 μg/L, respectively. Recovery rates for the QuEChERS method ranged from 77.9 % to 107.3 %, while ultrasonication recovery ranged from 59.46 % to 72.55 %. The QuEChERS method proved more effective than ultrasonication. Some levels of NEOs were found in honey samples, with acetamiprid and thiacloprid being the most prevalent, with concentrations ranging from 0.349 to 11.2 μg/g and 0.074 to 17.7 μg/g, respectively. Additionally, both essential and non-essential heavy metals were identified, except for cadmium. The dietary intake assessment indicates that consuming these honey samples is unlikely to cause significant adverse effects in humans. • The levels and potential human health risks of NEOs, and selected metals, were studied in commercial honey samples. • The QuEChERS analytical procedure was used for the isolation of NEO residues. • Dispersive-solid-phase extraction was used for the clean-up of the honey extracts. • NEO residues were isolated and quantified using HPLC. • NEO residues and selected metals were detected in most of the honey samples, with potential health risks.