Governance of spring-dependent community water supply schemes in Seti Khola Watershed, Nepal

ABSTRACT Springs are essential water sources, especially in mid-hill regions. This study focuses on the governance of spring-fed community water supply schemes to understand how governance can achieve their sustainable and equitable water management. Surveys and social interactions were conducted to study utilization, distribution, and governance with strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats based assessment. The Seti Khola watershed is located in rural to peri-urban mid-hill region, with an area of 115 sq.km. It has monsoon-dependent annual rainfall concentrated in ∼100 days and stays dry for remaining days. The area has 175 perennial springs, 74 directly accessed, 72 gravity-fed and 29 are pumped, however, 22 piped systems are shared across three categories for about 30,000 people in 20 wards. The findings reveal a water governance system dominated by decentralized informal mechanisms. Most systems (88%) were managed locally, often through informal community structures across local, provincial and central governments. Of the total springs, 25 were lacking to supply minimum water requirements, 47.6% exhibited excess environmental flow, and others faced dry-season shortages. The typology of springs varies, with 'Muhan' supporting largest number of households with the highest dry-season cumulative outflow. Analysis shows community governance and nature-based solutions are vital for sustainability of sources.