A dual cohort analysis of parenting practices, attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, anger, and emotion dysregulation in middle childhood: Findings from a UK and Zurich sample

Abstract Background In middle childhood (ages 6–12), children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms often experience emotion dysregulation (ED), anger, and social difficulties, including peer problems and maladaptive conflict resolution. Parenting plays a critical role in shaping emotional development; however, how parenting practices interact with ADHD symptoms to influence ED, anger, and social functioning remains underexplored, particularly across cross‐national contexts. This study examined these dynamics using longitudinal data from two population‐based cohorts in the UK and Zurich. Methods Data was drawn from two longitudinal cohorts: the UK Millennium Cohort Study (MCS; n = 3147–30,135) and the Zurich Project on Social Development from Childhood to Adulthood (z‐proso; n = 1179–1360). In the MCS sample, we ran cross‐sectional moderation models to examine whether ADHD symptoms moderated the association between withdrawn/harsh parenting practices and emotion dysregulation, at ages 5 and 7, respectively (H1) . The MCS sample also examined whether ADHD symptoms at age 7 moderated the association between withdrawn/harsh parenting practices at age 5 and peer relationship problems at age 11, longitudinally (H2) . In the z‐proso sample, we ran cross‐sectional moderation models to examine whether ADHD symptoms moderated the association between negative/positive parenting and anger, at age 9 (H3) . The z‐proso sample additionally focused on whether anger at 9 mediates the association between age 7 negative/positive parenting and conflict coping strategies (aggressive/competent) at age 11, longitudinally (H4) Multiple linear regression, moderation, and mediation analyses were performed, adjusting for demographic covariates, such as gender, income (MCS), socio‐economic status (z‐proso), maternal education (MCS), ethnicity (MCS), and parents' migration background (z‐proso). Results In the MCS, cross‐sectionally at age 7, a statistically significant negative interaction was observed, indicating that the association between withdrawn parenting and ED was stronger at lower levels of ADHD symptoms and weakened as ADHD symptoms increased, suggesting that parenting had a greater influence on emotional outcomes when ADHD symptoms were less pronounced. Longitudinally, ADHD symptoms at age 7 amplified the effects of withdrawn parenting at age 5 on peer problems at age 11, highlighting the compounding risk of elevated ADHD symptoms and early parenting challenges on later social functioning. In z‐proso, cross‐sectionally at age 9, ADHD symptoms did not moderate the effects of positive or negative parenting on anger. Longitudinally, anger at age 9 mediated the association between ADHD symptoms at age 7 and both aggressive and competent conflict coping at age 11, identifying emotional reactivity as a key developmental mechanism linking early ADHD symptoms to later behavioural adjustment. Conclusion Findings across both cohorts showed that parenting practices and ADHD symptoms interact to influence emotion dysregulation, anger, and social difficulties in middle childhood. Anger emerged as a distinct emotional process, reinforcing its unique role in social challenges. The results highlight the need for culturally sensitive interventions that address both parenting and emotion regulation to improve outcomes for children with ADHD symptoms.