Experimental insights on the behaviour and development of Near Eastern Fire salamanders (Salamandra infraimmaculata) indicate general strategies to cope with aquatic predators

Abstract Fishes are key predators of amphibian larvae with often devastating consequences for their abundance and survival. In Israel, the Near Eastern Fire salamander ( Salamandra infraimmaculata ) reaches the southern limit of the geographic distribution of the whole genus. They must cope with xeric terrestrial habitats- and a scarcity of suitable sites for the deposition of larvae with permanent springs and streams are being rare. One such location is the Tel Dan National Park in the North of Israel, where salamander larvae coexist successfully with fishes in a system of larger and smaller streams. In three experiments we tested different anti-predator behaviour with salamanders from Tel Dan and other locations. We analysed whether gravid females avoid the presence of fish when depositing their larvae; if the presence of fish impacts larval development and if salamander larvae show active hiding behaviour when confronted with fish cues. While females from Tel Dan showed a bet-hedging strategy in site selection irrespective of fish presence, larval developmental rate was reduced in the presence of fish probably due to a lower feeding activity. Lastly, larvae from different sites displayed hiding behaviour in the presence of fish, irrespective whether they naturally coexist with fish or not. We infer from our results and existing studies that S. infraimmaculata shows general rather than site-specific adaptations to cope with the presence of fish. We conclude that the general adaptations are essential to sustain this species in a range of extreme habitats at the southern limit of the distribution.