Multi-sensory modulation of outdoor thermal comfort: A systematic review and future agenda

Urban vitality hinges on outdoor spaces that are simultaneously thermally comfortable and multisensorially engaging. Synthesising 48 studies (2000–2025), we find that thermal perception remains the primary driver of comfort, yet its dominance is dynamically moderated by visual (illuminance, greenery, colour), acoustic (sound pressure level, sound type), olfactory (air quality, fragrance), tactile (material surface temperature, texture), and gustatory stimuli. Field and laboratory evidence reveals cross-modal effects—additive, synergistic, or compensatory—that shift the sensory hierarchy with climate, season, and setting. To advance the field, we propose: (1) cross-climate longitudinal surveys coupled with immersive virtual reality to overcome spatiotemporal constraints; (2) integration of Electroencephalography, functional MRI, and autonomic markers to elucidate neural integration pathways; (3) diversified stimulus sets across all sensory channels; (4) predictive overall-comfort models that explicitly quantify multisensory interactions; and (5) targeted investigations of chronic-disease populations exhibiting altered sensory processing. This roadmap equips designers and planners with evidence-based strategies for responsive, energy-efficient, and health-promoting urban open spaces.