Comprehensive portfolio of adaptation measures to safeguard against evolving flood risks in a changing climate

Flooding exacerbated by climate change presents growing risks to communities worldwide. Despite extensive research on flood risk, there is a lack of critical analysis of flood adaptation measures spanning traditional and emerging methods. Here, we compile a comprehensive portfolio of 39 adaptation measures classified into four groups: infrastructural/technological, institutional, behavioral/cultural, and nature-based measures. Each measure is evaluated for its advantages, disadvantages, co-benefits, and tradeoffs. Our analysis identifies four broad eras in the evolution of flood adaptation measures. While early efforts primarily focused on structural modifications, more recent projects shifted toward soft adaptation measures, with a growing interest in employing community-centered and nature-based solutions. We lay out key decision-making attributes to identify successful adaptation strategies that are socially just, practically feasible, and technically sound. Finally, we highlight gaps and provide recommendations for future research, with an emphasis on a transdisciplinary approach toward developing and implementing climate-resilient and equitable flood adaptation strategies. The focus of flood adaptation measures has shifted over recent decades from structural modifications towards community-centred and nature-based solutions, according to a global synthesis and classification of adaptation measures.