Antimicrobial activity and possible mechanisms of juglone against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella pullorum

These findings suggest that juglone compromises the permeability and integrity of the cell envelope in E. coli, S. aureus, and S. pullorum, resulting in cytoplasmic leakage and metabolic impairment. Additionally, juglone alters the gene expression of transporters, interferes with the energy metabolism, protein synthesis and transport, quorum sensing, and biofilm formation of S. pullorum, thereby exerting antimicrobial effects.