Kinetics and thermodynamics study of lipid extraction from Camelus dromedarius fat waste and feedstock application in biodiesel production

Abstract The search for alternative biofuel sources became increasingly critical to meet the growing global energy demand. The key challenge is to develop energy pathways that reduce dependence on fossil fuels while promoting circular resource utilization. This study investigates the potential of Camelus dromedarius fat waste as a sustainable lipid source for biodiesel production. Oil extraction was conducted using a Soxhlet apparatus under varying conditions of temperatures (60–75 °C), extraction times (3–6 h), and fat-to-solvent F/S ratios (1:6–1:10). A maximum oil yield of 72.10% was obtained at 70 °C, a 1:10 F/S ratio, and 5 h extraction time. The extraction kinetics and thermodynamics were analyzed using a second-order model, revealing an activation energy (Eₐ) of 59.68 kJ/mol, enthalpy change (ΔH) of 56.87 kJ/mol, entropy change (ΔS) of − 135.57 J/mol·K, and Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of 101.94–103.29 kJ/mol. These results indicated the Soxhlet extraction was a temperature-dependent, endothermic, and non-spontaneous process. The extracted oil was converted into biodiesel via alkaline transesterification, achieving a 94.5% yield under conditions: oil-to-methanol molar ratio of 1:9, catalyst ratio of 0.50 wt%, reaction time of 60 min, and temperature of 45 °C. Characterization using GC-FID, FTIR, and physicochemical properties confirmed compliance with ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing C. dromedarius fat waste for sustainable biodiesel production that meets international quality standards. Graphical abstract