Correction: Advancing environmental sustainability of ceramic tile production: a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment case study from Sri Lanka

Building life cycles require substantial resources, significantly impacting the environment, while population growth intensifies the demand for construction materials. This concern is further emphasized by the alarming rise in the per capita material footprint, which surged from 8.1 metric tons in 1990 to 12.2 metric tons in 2017, representing a 50% rise (United Nations Statistics Division, 2025). Alongside concrete, steel, glass, and wood, ceramic is among the most consumed construction materials (Boschi et al., 2020;Bovea et al., 2010) particularly in residential and commercial buildings (Yuan et al., 2024). Serving as core components of the built environment, construction materials significantly contribute to achieving sustainability (Wanaguru et al., 2025;2022). The worldwide manufacturing of ceramic tiles has significantly increased in recent years, nearly doubling in volume (Vieira et al., 2023). This widespread use is attributed to their durability, low maintenance requirements, and a wide variety of colors, designs, textures, and sizes (Yuan et al., 2024). Accordingly, the environmental issues associated with the construction industry have drawn attention to the concept of environmental sustainability and how its application to the ceramics industry (Türkmen et al., 2021).Ceramic tiles, being the most widely used ceramic product in Sri Lanka, play a significant role in building construction compared to other flooring materials (Jayasinghe and Dassanayake, 2024). Further, local floor tile demand grew by 16%, with 60% of the Sri Lankan tile market supplied by local production and the rest by imports (Lanka Tiles Plc, 2020). By 2022, investments and advancements had increased local production capacity to 31 million square meters, meeting and surpassing demand (Daily Mirror, 2023). The increasing demand for raw materials in the Sri Lankan construction industry has led to their scarcity, creating an urgent need to explore alternative materials for a full or partial replacement (Jayasinghe and Dassanayake, 2024). According to Divakara and Attalage (2007), the ceramic sector in Sri Lanka is extremely energy-intensive, employing both thermal and electrical energy (Divakara and Attalage, 2007). Further, ceramic floor tiles, widely used in Sri Lankan construction, are made from natural resources like clay, feldspar, silica sand, and dolomite, with their energy-intensive production posing environmental challenges Kamalakkannan and Kulatunga (2019), enhancing the environmental consciousness of tile manufacturing is essential for promoting sustainability in Sri Lanka (Jayasinghe and Dassanayake, 2024).Numerous studies have identified key stages in the ceramic tile manufacturing process that contribute significantly to environmental impacts, emphasizing the need for informed decision-making to mitigate these effects (Furszyfer Del Rio et al., 2022;Vieira et al., 2023). Accordingly, it is recognized that the advancements in technology for cleaner production are essential for the sustainable development of the ceramic sector (Wang, 2020). Technological advancements have further improved production processes and formulations, enabling the inclusion of up to a dozen different materials in tile batches, which has led to significant improvements in the technical performance of ceramic tiles (Dondi et al., 2021). In recent decades, the incorporation of scrap materials like fly ash (Yuan et al., 2024), post-treated bottom ash (Schabbach et al., 2012), into ceramic tile manufacturing has enhanced the stability and characteristics, while promoting environmental benefits by partially substituting quartz sand and feldspar. Further, heat recovery systems from flue gases reduce GHG emissions and energy costs while improving process energy efficiency (Furszyfer Del Rio et al., 2022;Ibáñez-Forés et al., 2013) and increased use of renewable energy (Ros-Dosdá et al., 2018) has resulted in significant improvements in the ceramic sector.Life cycle assessment is a widely accepted and commonly utilized method for quantifying environmental impacts. The LCA findings assist in identifying hotspots for improvement, offering useful data for strategic planning of products or processes, setting design and redesign priorities, and assisting in the selection of environmental performance indicators; all of which help industries gain a competitive edge (Bajdur et al., 2023;Pryshlakivsky and Searcy, 2013), driven by eco-innovation. Ecoinnovations in ceramic tile production encompass alterations in product design, enhancements in process efficiency for energy conservation, and transitions to more sustainable energy sources (Ros-Dosdá et al., 2018;Türkmen et al., 2021). LCA helps identify potential product improvements by evaluating all life cycle stages and manufacturing processes for environmental performance, enabling resource reduction through optimal techniques, and minimizing environmental impacts (Türkmen et al., 2021). Technological advancements in cleaner production are essential to the ceramic industry's long-term viability (Wang, 2020). A significant amount of existing research has concentrated on assessing the environmental impacts of ceramic tile manufacturing (Türkmen et al., 2021). There is a scarcity of studies that investigate the economic and technological feasibility of enhancement strategies aimed at particular production hotspots that have been identified (Wang, 2020).Further, despite being widely discussed worldwide, the life cycle approach to environmental impact in building construction is still largely unfamiliar in Sri Lanka due to the lack of countryspecific data and the high costs and complexities involved in conducting such assessments (Kumarasena and Weerathunga, 2020;Vijerathne et al., 2022). Creating a national database would enhance the precision of environmental impact assessments for construction in Sri Lanka (Vijerathne et al., 2024). This study aims to create a country-specific Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) dataset to evaluate the environmental impacts of ceramic tile production in Sri Lanka and identify the most sustainable eco-innovations by comparing four eco-innovative scenarios. It involves conducting a life cycle assessment using the cradle-to-gate approach to identify environmental hotspots in ceramic tile manufacturing and to compare the sustainable improvement opportunities through cleaner production scenarios, ultimately guiding eco-design strategies. Accordingly, this research provides a fundamental basis for informing evidence-based policy decisions, supporting the adoption of sustainable manufacturing practices, and driving innovation toward environmentally conscious product development in the ceramic industry. The ceramic tile industry has emerged as a significant contributor to global manufacturing, with its environmental footprint and sustainability challenges drawing increasing academic attention. The production of ceramic tiles negatively impacts the environment, both through the extraction of natural raw materials and the emissions produced during the firing process (Luiz et al., 2020), producing around 1.84 million tonnes of carbon dioxide each year globally (Quinteiro et al., 2022). Further, Environmental impact assessment studies have consistently identified energy consumption and water consumption as critical concerns in ceramic tile manufacturing (Mezquita et al., 2017;Wang, 2020) note that natural gas remains the predominant energy source in most facilities, contributing significantly to the industry's carbon footprint, with its energy mix comprising 85%-92% gas and 8%-15% electricity (Monfort et al., 2010).The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has compiled data from multiple research studies and ceramic manufacturing facilities, indicating that the production of ceramic tiles emits an average of 300 kg CO 2 /Mg, 1.6 kg CO/Mg, 0.27 kg NO x /Mg, 2.4 kg SO 2 /Mg and 0.23 kg HF/Mg (Tikul and Srichandr, 2010). Further, fluorine compounds (fluorides, HF) are released from clays during ceramic production at high temperatures (600 °C-700 °C) due to fluoride impurities present in the raw materials (Timellini et al., 2016). The burning of fuels in furnaces and dryers generates SOx, NOx, and CO, and produces CO 2 emissions (Atılgan Türkmen et al., 2021). Kilns and dryers utilized in ceramic manufacture are responsible for the majority of fuel-related emissions (Atılgan Türkmen et al., 2021). Consequently, the effective functioning of such equipment is crucial regarding emissions (Atılgan Türkmen et al., 2021). Dust emissions may arise during the shipping, processing, storage, and grinding of raw materials. Emissions of SOx, hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl), and CO 2 arise from the sulfur-containing, chlorinated, fluorinated, and carbonated chemicals present in the raw material (Atılgan Türkmen et al., 2021). The polishing and surface coating phases of baked ceramics processing generate particulate matter and VOC emissions (Ibáñez-Forés et al., 2013). This sector incurs considerable health costs attributable to elevated mortality rates (Furszyfer Del Rio et al., 2022). In Dhaka, Bangladesh, brick production is associated with an estimated 2,200 to 4,000 premature deaths and 200,000 to 500,000 asthma attacks each year (Guttikunda and Khaliquzzaman, 2014).A singular strategy to substantially reduce emissions in ceramic production is not commonly accepted; rather, a holistic approach encompassing energy efficiency, recycling, resource optimisation, and material replacement is essential (Furszyfer Del Rio et al., 2022). The incorporation of industrial solid waste into ceramic materials can mitigate these impacts, contingent upon the properties of the solid waste and its interaction with ceramic materials during the processing stages (Luiz et al., 2020). In recent decades, the integration of leftover materials has become a normative practice in ceramic tile manufacturing, improving both stability and performance (Yuan et al., 2024). This technique enables the utilisation of waste materials while advancing sustainable manufacturing practices (Yuan et al., 2024). Technological advancements have enhanced production processes and formulations, allowing the incorporation of various elements in tile batches, and significantly improving ceramic tiles' technical qualities (Dondi et al., 2014). Further, Mezquita et al. (2014) propose several approaches to reduce energy consumption, including heat recovery systems and et al. explore systems while et al. to energy efficiency energy sources have with thermal integration and and in and technological in and are growth potential et al., 2025). et al. further how have their competitive edge through innovation and while sustainability remains the and of ceramic tiles, for 50% of global tile production and of tile consumption et al., 2020), with and as the and of ceramic tiles as in and are the of ceramic representing of the production et al., while being and produces on the global Further, such as and or consumption and million square meters, a to the industry. 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This is by other which that systems that use of heat recovery can energy consumption per of production by as as 60% compared to (Furszyfer Del Rio et al., 2022). Accordingly, this a gas reduction in the process with the heat recovery as in electricity with renewable energy from a The production of ceramic tiles is an essential the building and construction by significant energy et al., attributable to the technology and energy utilized in and 2021). 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The in environmental impact the of enhancement to the with the most significant being a in by a reduction in water consumption and a in in which by resource scarcity by and by these the are still a improvement in environmental performance, considerable multiple impact enhancements in and particulate matter both of which are essential for by and global potential a significant reduction of the the environmental performance compared to the alternative scenarios, achieving a reduction in a in a reduction in global and a in particulate matter The findings that multiple from waste material to renewable energy the most effective to environmental impacts while product research has emissions reduction in the industrial sector have concentrated on the ceramics industry. This the for increased on technological to the ceramics industry. By evaluating the environmental of four waste material energy and renewable energy this study key local challenges in Sri ceramic tile such as on electricity and of waste materials. By scenarios, such as partial replacement of raw materials with industrial energy recovery during and integration of renewable energy sources like the study to Sri environmental and industrial help reduce on gas and local sustainability the study to sustainable manufacturing by with through waste and promoting cleaner production The LCA and a for assessing and improving environmental performance in a this research can other industries in Sri Lanka and to advancing sustainable industrial development and supporting global this research the of country-specific as environmental impacts can significantly on local energy and manufacturing Sri ceramic this study provides a for sustainable offering evidence-based for improvements such as waste material energy and long-term strategic planning including including renewable energy integration of alternative water and process Accordingly, these and long-term by policy and to sustainability in the ceramics tile manufacturing this research a solid for enhancing the environmental performance of ceramic tile manufacturing in Sri Lanka by essential for in industry practices more sustainable techniques, contributing to a environmental footprint in the ceramic tile production Further, the potential by these studies on the and viability of the in industrial this research the study on data from due to the of to Sri stages ceramic tile production the assessment of the potential benefits of construction