Determinants of residential energy consumption in Kuwaiti homes: a cross-sectional study

Introduction Residential energy consumption in Kuwait ranks among the highest globally, largely due to villa-style housing and intensive air conditioning use under extreme climatic conditions. While prior studies have explored factors such as household size, occupancy, and thermostat settings, the combined impact of structural and behavioral determinants remains underexplored. This study addresses this gap by integrating villa ownership types, renovation practices, and energy-efficient technology adoption with constructs from the Theory of Planned Behavior (Attitude, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control). Methods A cross-sectional survey was conducted among households across Kuwait. Data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to examine the relationships between structural and behavioral determinants of residential energy consumption. The model incorporated both tangible factors (e.g., villa ownership, renovation behavior) and psychological constructs influencing energy-saving intentions and actions. Results The analysis revealed that villa ownership and renovation practices significantly influence household energy demand, serving as key structural drivers. Among behavioral constructs, Perceived Behavioral Control and Attitude had strong positive effects on energy-saving behaviors, whereas Subjective Norms exhibited a weaker influence. The results underscore the interplay between contextual housing characteristics and individual behavioral factors in shaping consumption. Discussion and Conclusion Findings highlight that energy consumption patterns in Kuwait are deeply rooted in socio-economic and cultural contexts—particularly villa culture and subsidized energy pricing—which differentiate Kuwait from other regions. The study advances understanding of residential energy behavior by linking physical housing attributes with behavioral constructs. Practical implications are offered for households, policymakers, and private-sector stakeholders, outlining strategies for targeted energy-efficiency interventions and sustainable behavioral change in the Gulf region.