Emerging neural modulation techniques for the management of phantom limb pain: Evidence from randomized controlled trials

Phantom limb pain (PLP), a common sequela of amputation, affects up to 86% of amputees and significantly impairs quality of life. PLP is thought to stem from complex central and peripheral nervous system plasticity. Current treatments, including pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches, have limited efficacy. Recently, extended reality technologies have emerged as promising tools for PLP management, leveraging immersive sensory input to modulate cortical reorganization. Of note, emerging neural modulation techniques also offer promising alternatives, including peripheral nerve stimulation, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation. These approaches demonstrate clinical efficacy in relieving pain, improving functional outcomes and reducing opioid usage. Future research could prioritize large-scale trials to validate the efficacy of nerve stimulation techniques and explore their integration with extended reality technologies for PLP.