Biophysical and socioeconomic drivers of livestock management in high-altitude Xizang, China

• LSR and LOR of smallholders are studied. • Low LOR (∼12%) is widespread across North Xizang. • The effects of environmental factors on LSR and LOR are disentangled. • LSR and LOR rely highly on climate and rangeland conditions. • Socioeconomic factors weakly affect LSR and LOR of herder households. Livestock management plays a crucial role in environmental protection, food security, and sustainable livelihoods worldwide. However, comprehensive research on its microeconomic dimensions remains limited. Here, we used piecewise structural equation modeling to identify key drivers of livestock management among rural smallholders, focusing on livestock stocking rates (LSR) and livestock offtake rates (LOR). Data were collected via semi-structured questionnaires and household head interviews in 54 villages in northern Xizang between 2018 and 2020 ( n = 549). Our findings revealed pronounced spatial heterogeneity in livestock management, with households in alpine meadows showing the highest LSR (2.14 standardized sheep units per hectare) and the lowest LOR (9 %), in contrast to households in desert steppe areas (0.27 and 15 %, respectively). Across northern Xizang, five grouped environmental factors—climatic conditions, natural resource endowment, market conditions, demographics, and household income—jointly explained 66 % and 20 % of the variance in LSR and LOR, respectively. Biophysical factors had a greater influence than socioeconomic ones, though demographic variables and market conditions were also positively correlated with LSR and LOR, respectively. Given the consistently low LOR among species (9 %–15 %), with marked differences between yaks and sheep (5 %) and goats (2 %), targeted policies are needed to encourage herders to adopt circular economy practices to balance ecological conservation with economic growth. This study highlights an underutilized livestock economy in high-altitude pastoral communities and clarifies the interplay of biophysical and socioeconomic factors in herders’ decision-making. The findings offer valuable insights for refining policy frameworks related to livestock and environmental management in rural China and beyond.