Spatial and Temporal Factors Influencing Environmental Benefits on the Socioeconomic Changes of the Poor: A Case Study in Kuala Krai, Kelantan

Rural poverty continues to pose major challenges in Malaysia, particularly in districts that are geographically isolated and vulnerable to climatic variability.Kuala Krai in Kelantan represents one of the poorest regions where households depend heavily on land, forests, and rivers for their livelihoods.This study investigates how spatial factors such as infrastructure accessibility, distance to markets, and adoption of technology together with temporal factors such as seasonal floods, droughts, and harvest cycles shape socioeconomic outcomes for poor households.A mixed-method approach was employed, combining surveys with 351 respondents and in-depth interviews with household heads.Principal component analysis revealed that access to infrastructure and markets significantly enhances income stability, while temporal shocks, especially floods, disrupt farming cycles, damage crops, and increase reliance on informal coping strategies.Findings highlight that environmental resources provide essential benefits but are undermined by the combined impact of spatial and temporal constraints, particularly in remote areas such as Dabong.The study concludes that poverty reduction strategies must integrate infrastructure development, climate risk management, and technological innovation to ensure the sustainable utilization of environmental resources as a pathway out of poverty.