Multimodal 3D-printed passive samplers to monitor, model and prioritise <i>in situ</i> pharmaceutical and pesticide pollution risks to an aquatic freshwater invertebrate, <i>Gammarus pulex</i>

Calibrated 3D-printed multi-modal passive sampler devices (3D-PSDs) were used herein both to monitor contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in freshwater and to estimate <i>in situ</i> chemical toxic and effect units for the aquatic invertebrate, <i>Gammarus pulex</i>, to support prioritisation strategies. A six-month study of water, biota, and 3D-PSDs in a heavily wastewater-impacted urban river catchment in London revealed 112 CECs detected, including pesticides, pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs and transformation products (water = 50; 3D-PSDs = 99; and <i>G. pulex</i> = 58 CECs). In <i>G. pulex</i>, the top three most concentrated CECs were citalopram (an antidepressant, at 101 ± 11 ng g^-1), imidacloprid and clothianidin (both neonicotinoid pesticides, at 63 ± 12 and 52 ± 39 ng g^-1, respectively). Principal component analysis revealed that passive sampler data represented chemical occurrence in the <i>G. pulex</i> better than using water data. Strong correlations existed between the passive sampler and biomonitoring data (<i>R</i>² > 0.84, <i>p</i> < 0.05) indicating a possibility to infer risk from the device directly and without using calibrated PSD uptake rates (<i>R</i>_s). This new approach showed promise as a potentially cost-effective way to rapidly prioritise sites and CECs for large-scale risk assessment campaigns for these species.