Nanotechnology-driven biofortification of Fe, Zn, and Se in edible plants

Iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) are essential micronutrients for both plants and humans, whereas selenium (Se) is essential for human health and beneficial for plants. Nevertheless, deficiencies in these elements remain a global concern. Nanoparticle (NP)-mediated biofortification of edible plants offers a sustainable and effective strategy to enhance crop nutritional value. This review synthesizes current knowledge on (i) NP types and formulations, highlighting how particle size, composition, and surface properties influence nutrient delivery; (ii) application methods, including soil amendments, foliar spraying, and seed nanopriming, emphasizing their efficiency and limitations; and (iii) mechanisms of NP uptake, translocation, and accumulation in edible tissues, identifying factors that affect bioavailability. Compared with conventional fertilization, NP-based approaches deliver micronutrients more effectively, promote better plant growth, and enhance nutritional content. We also discuss key research gaps, environmental and economic challenges, and regulatory considerations that need to be addressed to ensure safe and scalable implementation. By overcoming these barriers, NP-mediated biofortification can significantly contribute to combating micronutrient deficiencies and improving global food security.