β-Caryophyllene and Graphene Oxide: A Novel Approach for Managing <i>Fusarium</i> Wilt in <i>Cyclamen</i> spp.

Cyclamen (<i>Cyclamen</i> spp.) is a widely cultivated ornamental plant. Among the soil-borne pathogens affecting cyclamen, <i>Fusarium</i> wilt, caused by <i>Fusarium oxysporum</i> f. sp. <i>cyclaminis</i>, is one of the most significant phytosanitary challenges. This study aimed to evaluate the antifungal potential of graphene oxide and β-caryophyllene, separately and in combination, applied either by spraying or through endotherapy (bulb injection), to control <i>Fusarium</i> wilt in cyclamen. The combined application of these antifungal agents proved more effective, resulting in 40-60% mortality of infected plants, compared to 100% mortality in the untreated control group. A sorption study of fusaric acid on graphene oxide was also conducted to better understand its antifungal activity, along with an ecotoxicological assessment of β-caryophyllene to evaluate its environmental safety. Overall, the strong synergistic effect between graphene oxide and β-caryophyllene against <i>Fusarium oxysporum</i> f. sp. <i>cyclaminis</i> highlights their potential use in plant protection and supports the advancement of sustainable agricultural practices.