Smallholder land-use decisions in a tropical agro-forest frontier in Southern Mexico

Abstract Context Agricultural expansion has significantly diminished tropical forests. Understanding how social-ecological processes impact local smallholder land-use decisions is critical for assessing the effectiveness of land-use policy initiatives and shaping long-term socio-environmental futures. Objectives Through a comparative analysis of two neighboring communities this research examines: 1) the land-use composition at farm-level, and 2) the social-ecological variables at three different scales: local (household factors), regional (biophysical factors), and national (institutional factors) that shape smallholders land-use decisions in an agro-forest frontier in Southern Mexico. Methods Drawing on farm-level data from semi-structured interviews we tested for differences in land-use composition across farms per community. Using a combination of qualitative analysis from ethnographic research, and generalized linear models we assessed the variables that influence smallholder land-use decisions. Results Seven distinct land-use types were identified: agriculture, pasture, primary forest, secondary forest, rubber, oil palm, and reforestation. The two communities differ in on-farm primary forest cover. We found that the following variables influence smallholders’ land-use decisions: 1) local-level: farm size, off-farm income, and diversity of income sources; 2) regional-level: soil quality; 3) institutional-level: some programs (Rubber, Oil palm, Reforestation) influence certain land-use decisions, while the relationship between some programs (PROCAMPO, PROGAN, PES) and certain land-use decisions was harder to evaluate. Conclusions We conclude that while making local land-use decisions, smallholders evaluate a number of social-ecological factors at various scales. This has important implications for the formulation of more tailored and contextual-based agricultural development and conservation policies that aim not only to accomplish specified land-use outcomes but also to improve farmers’ livelihoods.