Wolf behavioral adjustments during pup-caring in response to disturbances from the hunt on wild ungulates

Abstract Hunting any wildlife species is an anthropogenic pressure that modulates target species populations, affecting phenotype expressions like behavior. Such behavioral adaptations occur in the Iberian wolf ( Canis lupus signatus ), which adjusts its activity pattern and activity level to satisfy survival needs. This response is mediated by temporal avoidance mechanisms that can induce physiological alterations in individuals. We estimated activity levels and activity patterns from 640 camera trapping records of Iberian wolf and 829 of hunting disturbance, in three areas where hunting is allowed and one area where hunting is banned in the Macizo Central Ourensano, during the pup-caring season. Wolves were active 10.83 hours/day in hunting-banned areas, and between 12 and 17.90 hours/day in hunting-allowed areas. The activity pattern of wolves was cathemeral in all the sampled areas, except in Baldriz, a hunting-permitted area, where it was mostly nocturnal. Wolf reproductive groups differed in their daily activity pattern due to varying hunting intensities, with activity peaks occurring before noon in protected areas, and at twilight in non-protected areas. No significant change in wolf activity was observed in response to the presence of off-road trucks, compared to the presence of hunting dogs and hunters, which are directly associated with hunting. This suggests that wolves adjust their activity pattern based on habitat conditions, such as the presence of anthropogenic disturbances like hunting, even when the wolf is not a target species.