Belief, belonging, and borders: mapping faith, identity, and integration across European cities

Abstract This paper investigates the relations between religious identity, religiosity, and social integration across diverse urban landscapes in four European countries. Drawing on data from 5213 respondents across nineteen cities, our study employs a three-level hierarchical model to unravel how individual religious commitment interacts with local institutional contexts to shape integration outcomes. We develop three central hypotheses: (1) the impact of religious identity on integration varies significantly with urban institutional structures and neighbourhood dynamics; (2) higher levels of religiosity bolster integration by mobilising social capital and community support, particularly among Muslim populations; and (3) the effectiveness of religious resources in promoting integration is further conditioned by intersectional factors such as generational status, gender, and country of origin. Our findings reveal a nuanced picture: while Muslim identity is initially linked to lower integration scores, robust religious engagement can mitigate these disadvantages, transforming religious commitment into a critical resource for inclusion. Moreover, the degree to which religiosity enhances integration is strongly mediated by the local urban environment—with cities offering proactive, inclusive policies (e.g., Amsterdam) outperforming those characterised by fragmented institutional support (e.g., Birmingham). These results challenge binary interpretations of religion as merely a bridge or barrier, highlighting its context-dependent role in fostering social cohesion. The study contributes to the broader theoretical debate by emphasising the need to consider both micro-level religious practices and macro-level urban policies, ultimately offering actionable insights for policymakers committed to enhancing the integration of religious minorities in contemporary European societies.