Multiple household water sources and uses in rural ASALs: Evidence and proposed solutions from Turkana, Kenya

Water scarcity remains a pressing issue in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs), often compelling households to rely on multiple water sources to meet their daily water needs. While widespread in many low and middle-income settings globally, the specific extent and dynamics of this practice remain underexplored. This study addresses this gap by examining multisource water use in Turkana County, a predominantly pastoralist and rural low-income ASAL in Kenya. A cross-sectional survey of 475 households revealed universal reliance on multiple water sources, with usage patterns largely influenced by seasonal availability. Despite operational and water quality constraints, boreholes were the most utilized source, supporting 94.1 % of households. Other prevalent sources included rivers/streams, shallow hand-dug wells on dry riverbeds, water pans, springs, water vendors, and the saline Lake Turkana. Roof-based rainwater harvesting also supported a substantial proportion of households (19.4 %), although it was constrained by housing design. While pronounced disparities in water access were observed between rural townships and more remote areas, statistical analysis revealed significant seasonal associations between water source use and household activities across Turkana. This study proposes implementing alternative rainwater harvesting techniques: macro and rock catchments, and subsurface dams to address water scarcity and flood risk in Turkana. Findings highlight the critical role of multiple water source use in rural low-income ASALs and its potential to inform research, global water management, health outcomes, and resilience-oriented interventions. • 475 households (HHs) surveyed in the semi-arid, pastoralist Turkana County, Kenya. • Most HHs report 4–6 water sources, with major source and use changes across seasons. • Boreholes serve 94.1 % of HHs but water quality and functionality pose challenges. • HHs reported using much less water for handwashing and hygiene in the dry season. • Scaling up rock catchments and subsurface dams can potentially meet HH water needs.