Graphene–hydrogel biointerfaces: Comparative design frameworks and translational pathways in biomedicine

Graphene-integrated conductive hydrogels are gaining recognition as adaptable biomaterials owing to their exceptional biocompatibility, flexibility, and outstanding electrical conductivity. These hybrid systems have demonstrated potential in applications such as neural biosensors, tissue engineering, wound healing, and drug delivery. For example, the incorporation of reduced graphene oxide into hydrogels improved conductivity to approximately 3.5 S/m and increased wound closure rates by 40 % in comparison to control groups. Likewise, polypyrrole–graphene composites exhibited Young's modulus values surpassing 18 kPa and capacitance levels exceeding 1000 F/g, highlighting their mechanical strength and energy-storage potential. This review provides a critical assessment of graphene–hydrogel biointerfaces, focusing on structure–function relationships, the trade-offs between conductivity and biocompatibility, and the challenges of scalability. Additionally, it explores translational pathways in cutting-edge fields such as 4D bioprinting and personalized medicine. By emphasizing comparative frameworks, design principles, and interdisciplinary viewpoints, this article offers valuable insights for material optimization and prospective biomedical applications.