Fake News as Invective in Times of Crisis

Abstract There is strong evidence for the presence of false news that is spread to achieve specific objectives in times of crisis in ancient Greek literature. This news—reminiscent to a certain extent of current fake news—was deliberately created and spread to deceive the enemy, mislead, manipulate decisions, and even obtain personal, social, or military benefits. A lexical approach leads us to the noun ψɛυδαγγɛλία, the specific term coined to refer to the transmission of false (fake) news. However, the term appears only once in an interesting passage of Xenophon's On the Cavalry Commander. Its presence in this single text is striking given the importance that Xenophon gives to lies as a perfect war strategy and as a means of intimidating enemies. This paper explores other ways of referring to fake news and focuses on its relevance as a powerful tool of invective in periods of crisis. Special attention will be paid to two closely related contexts: the military and the political spheres.