Comprehensive review of the synthesis and sustainable applications of biosurfactants

Biosurfactants are amphiphilic compounds derived from renewable resources, primarily produced by microorganisms. Owing to their low toxicity, high biodegradability, and environmental stability, they offer a sustainable alternative to synthetic surfactants. These compounds reduce interfacial tension, enhance solubility, and support pollutant degradation. Recent industrial momentum, driven by consumer demand and regulatory frameworks, has spurred research into the cost-effective and scalable production of biosurfactants. This review categorizes biosurfactants by molecular weight and functional groups and evaluates synthesis approaches using both hazardous and organic waste substrates. It further analyzes their roles in environmental remediation, food systems, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and agriculture. Notably, biosurfactants are effective in oil spill clean-up, heavy metal detoxification, and the inhibition of microbial biofilms, and show promise in improving food texture, enhancing drug delivery, and developing skincare formulations. Their functional efficacy in harsh conditions and biodegradability make them attractive for commercial deployment. The review also discusses production challenges, cost barriers, and regulatory hurdles, highlighting the need for innovations in metabolic engineering, process optimization, and techno-economic modeling to realize their industrial potential fully.