Shift in landscape use strategies during the transition from the Bronze age to Iron age in Northwest Serbia

Abstract Northwest Serbia has long been recognized for its rare and abundant mineral resources. A rare source of fluvial tin cassiterite ore has been identified in streams along the southern slopes of Cer Mountain. This tin deposit was first exploited during the Bronze Age, around the mid-second millennium BCE (Before the Common Era). Several surface-level copper sources in the Podrinje–Valjevo mountain range were known, with evidence suggesting that their exploitation began as early as the fourth millennium BCE. Archaeological surveys and excavations have uncovered numerous Late Bronze Age necropolises, while evidence of only a single lowland settlement from this period has been found. However, research has also revealed a significant number of hillforts from the Transitional period, marking their first appearance in this region. Material culture, along with a series of calibrated radiocarbon dates, points to the presence of culture originating farther to the north in southern Pannonia. These hillforts were all strategically located on the highest mountain peaks and were fortified with massive walls and defensive ditches clear indicators of a substantial transformation in landscape use between approximately 1000 and 850 BCE. Further analysis using Light Detection and Ranging technology uncovered the immense scale and architectural complexity of the Cikote stronghold, a scale unprecedented in earlier periods. In addition, a Geographic Information System-based viewshed analysis of 14 hillforts and lowland settlements from this era demonstrated that all sites were visually connected to at least one neighbouring location. Some strongholds maintained visual links with multiple sites, with lines of sight extending over several dozen kilometres.