Simulation of muon-induced backgrounds for the Colorado Underground Research Institute
We present a comprehensive Monte Carlo simulation of muon-induced backgrounds for the Colorado Underground Research Institute, a shallow-underground facility with <a:math xmlns:a="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"> <a:mrow> <a:mo>≈</a:mo> <a:mn>415</a:mn> <a:mtext> </a:mtext> <a:mtext> </a:mtext> <a:mi mathvariant="normal">meter water equivalent</a:mi> </a:mrow> </a:math> overburden. Using coupled and 4 frameworks, we characterize the production and transport of muon-induced secondaries through site-specific rock compositions and geometries, establishing a proof of concept for high-precision, end-to-end simulations. Our simulations employ angular-dependent muon energy distributions, which improve secondary flux accuracy. For the Subatomic Particle Hideout and Cryolab I research spaces, we predict total muon-induced neutron fluxes of <d:math xmlns:d="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"> <d:mrow> <d:mo stretchy="false">(</d:mo> <d:mn>8.52</d:mn> <d:mo>±</d:mo> <d:mn>1.3</d:mn> <d:msub> <d:mrow> <d:mn>0</d:mn> </d:mrow> <d:mrow> <d:mi>sys</d:mi> </d:mrow> </d:msub> <d:mo stretchy="false">)</d:mo> <d:mo>×</d:mo> <d:msup> <d:mrow> <d:mn>10</d:mn> </d:mrow> <d:mrow> <d:mo>−</d:mo> <d:mn>3</d:mn> </d:mrow> </d:msup> <d:mtext> </d:mtext> <d:mtext> </d:mtext> <d:msup> <d:mrow> <d:mi mathvariant="normal">m</d:mi> </d:mrow> <d:mrow> <d:mo>−</d:mo> <d:mn>2</d:mn> </d:mrow> </d:msup> <d:mtext> </d:mtext> <d:msup> <d:mrow> <d:mi mathvariant="normal">s</d:mi> </d:mrow> <d:mrow> <d:mo>−</d:mo> <d:mn>1</d:mn> </d:mrow> </d:msup> </d:mrow> </d:math> and <j:math xmlns:j="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"> <j:mrow> <j:mo stretchy="false">(</j:mo> <j:mn>8.86</j:mn> <j:mo>±</j:mo> <j:mn>1.6</j:mn> <j:msub> <j:mrow> <j:mn>2</j:mn> </j:mrow> <j:mrow> <j:mi>sys</j:mi> </j:mrow> </j:msub> <j:mo stretchy="false">)</j:mo> <j:mo>×</j:mo> <j:msup> <j:mrow> <j:mn>10</j:mn> </j:mrow> <j:mrow> <j:mo>−</j:mo> <j:mn>3</j:mn> </j:mrow> </j:msup> <j:mtext> </j:mtext> <j:mtext> </j:mtext> <j:msup> <j:mrow> <j:mi mathvariant="normal">m</j:mi> </j:mrow> <j:mrow> <j:mo>−</j:mo> <j:mn>2</j:mn> </j:mrow> </j:msup> <j:mtext> </j:mtext> <j:msup> <j:mrow> <j:mi mathvariant="normal">s</j:mi> </j:mrow> <j:mrow> <j:mo>−</j:mo> <j:mn>1</j:mn> </j:mrow> </j:msup> </j:mrow> </j:math> , respectively. Electromagnetic backgrounds are expected to dominate the total flux, with <p:math xmlns:p="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"> <p:mi>γ</p:mi> </p:math> -ray components of <r:math xmlns:r="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"> <r:mrow> <r:mo stretchy="false">(</r:mo> <r:mn>5.54</r:mn> <r:mo>±</r:mo> <r:mn>0.7</r:mn> <r:msub> <r:mrow> <r:mn>0</r:mn> </r:mrow> <r:mrow> <r:mi>sys</r:mi> </r:mrow> </r:msub> <r:mo stretchy="false">)</r:mo> <r:mo>×</r:mo> <r:msup> <r:mrow> <r:mn>10</r:mn> </r:mrow> <r:mrow> <r:mo>−</r:mo> <r:mn>1</r:mn> </r:mrow> </r:msup> <r:mtext> </r:mtext> <r:mtext> </r:mtext> <r:msup> <r:mrow> <r:mi mathvariant="normal">m</r:mi> </r:mrow> <r:mrow> <r:mo>−</r:mo> <r:mn>2</r:mn> </r:mrow> </r:msup> <r:mtext> </r:mtext> <r:msup> <r:mrow> <r:mi mathvariant="normal">s</r:mi> </r:mrow> <r:mrow> <r:mo>−</r:mo> <r:mn>1</r:mn> </r:mrow> </r:msup> </r:mrow> </r:math> and <x:math xmlns:x="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"> <x:mrow> <x:mo stretchy="false">(</x:mo> <x:mn>6.51</x:mn> <x:mo>±</x:mo> <x:mn>1.0</x:mn> <x:msub> <x:mrow> <x:mn>6</x:mn> </x:mrow> <x:mrow> <x:mi>sys</x:mi> </x:mrow> </x:msub> <x:mo stretchy="false">)</x:mo> <x:mo>×</x:mo> <x:msup> <x:mrow> <x:mn>10</x:mn> </x:mrow> <x:mrow> <x:mo>−</x:mo> <x:mn>1</x:mn> </x:mrow> </x:msup> <x:mtext> </x:mtext> <x:mtext> </x:mtext> <x:msup> <x:mrow> <x:mi mathvariant="normal">m</x:mi> </x:mrow> <x:mrow> <x:mo>−</x:mo> <x:mn>2</x:mn> </x:mrow> </x:msup> <x:mtext> </x:mtext> <x:msup> <x:mrow> <x:mi mathvariant="normal">s</x:mi> </x:mrow> <x:mrow> <x:mo>−</x:mo> <x:mn>1</x:mn> </x:mrow> </x:msup> </x:mrow> </x:math> for the Subatomic Particle Hideout and Cryolab I facilities, respectively. Additionally, we develop a depth-intensity relation to predict the muon-induced neutron flux as a function of facility depth, which is consistent with measurements across a broad range of underground depths. These results provide quantitative background predictions for experimental design and sensitivity projections at shallow- and deep-underground facilities. They further demonstrate that local geology and overburden geometry influence muon-induced secondary yields and energy spectra, emphasizing the need for site-specific simulations for accurate underground background characterization. Therefore, the simulation framework has been made pu
Authors
- Dakota K. Keblbeck
- Uwe Greife
- W. Van De Pontseele (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3422-3133)
- K. G. Leach (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4751-1698)
- Caitlyn Stone-Whitehead
- Eric William Mayotte (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2618-9166)
- G.J. Wagner
- Luke Wanner
Institutions
- Colorado School of Mines (US)
Publication Details
- Journal
- Physical review. D/Physical review. D.
- Published
- 2026-01-22
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1103/7n8l-pr2g
- Primary Topic
- Muon and positron interactions and applications
- Type
- article
- Field-Weighted Citation Impact
- 0.00
Funders
- National Science Foundation
- U.S. Department of Energy
- Achievement Rewards for College Scientists Foundation
- Colorado School of Mines
- Office of Science