Global Insights into Micro- and Nanoplastic Pollution in Surface Water: A Review

Microplastics (<5 mm) and nanoplastics (~100 nm), which are invisible to the naked eye, originate primarily from fragmentation and breakdown larger plastic debris are increasingly pervasive in the environment. Once released, they can disperse widely in the environment, pollute them adversely and ultimately be taken up by living organisms, including humans, through multiple exposure pathways. Their distribution in aquatic systems is influenced by their physiochemical properties including density, hydrophobicity, and chemical stability, along with environmental conditions and biological activities. To better understand the dynamics of micro- and nanoplastics in surface water, this study conducted a comprehensive review of 194 published articles and scientific reports covering marine, freshwater, and wastewater systems. We assessed the abundance, spatial distribution and the factors that govern their behavior in aquatic systems and analyzed the sampling techniques, pretreatment process, and detection and removal techniques to understand the ongoing scenario of these pollutants in surface water and to identify the ecological risks and potential toxicological effects on living biota via direct and indirect exposure pathways.