Context-Sensitive EV Product Solutions That Bridge Indonesia's Tier1–Tier2 Cities and Sub-Urban Infrastructure Divide

EV adoption in emerging markets faces barriers of high upfront costs, limited charging infrastructure, and diverse mobility needs. In Indonesia, the world’s largest archipelago, these challenges are amplified by sharp contrasts between urban Tier-1 cities, Tier-2 cities, and suburban areas. This study develops a Context-Sensitive EV Product Design Model integrating policy levers, consumer perceptions, and technical specifications to match products with local infrastructure readiness. Survey data from 401 respondents in seven cities were analyzed using multi-group Structural Equation Modeling–Partial Least Squares (SEM-PLS). Results show Tier-1 adoption is driven by policy-induced improvements in perceived price (β = 0.42) and infrastructure (β = 0.38), fostering demand for advanced features. Tier-2 adoption is more dependent on infrastructure perception (β = 0.44), prioritizing affordability and range. Suburban users emphasize battery durability and home charging due to long distances to public chargers. The findings highlight infrastructure gaps as the primary adoption differentiator, guiding manufacturers and policymakers toward geographically tailored EV designs to accelerate inclusive electrification in archipelagic emerging economies.