Alternative path to modernization: Research on three construction types in wartime Chongqing

The War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression (1937–1945) witnessed the relocation of China's Construction Center from downstream Yangtze River cities such as Shanghai and Nanjing to the inland city of Chongqing. This study examines three construction types undertaken by the Kwan, Chu and Yang Architects & Engineers (Kitai) in wartime Chongqing, revealing their adaptive strategies amid constraints of material scarcity, population surge, and wartime bombing, as well as the developmental modes behind these approaches. Within the brick-timber system, the strategies of structural reduction, enclosure grafting, and appearance imitation were explored to achieve cost-effective and aesthetically pleasing buildings. In the single-story timber (bamboo) system, the integration of Western-style trusses with local construction methods enabled the creation of stable structures and column-free interior spaces. In reinforced concrete air-raid shelters, the strategic placement of steel reinforcements balanced structural solidness with spatial efficiency. These construction strategies exemplified three predominant technical patterns: “transplantation-grafting,” “grafting-integration,” and “transplantation-tracking.” These construction types illustrated an alternative modernization path for Chinese architecture, distinct from that of the coastal regions, driven by regional interactions within China rather than external Western influence. The study enriches the understanding of the diversity in China's architectural modernization and offers insights into the adaptability and innovation of construction in late-developing regions.