From Anecdotes to Real-Life Examples: A Mixed-Methods Survey on Self-Deception

Self-deception, a motivated process of maintaining false beliefs despite contrary evidence, is often depicted using anecdotes and philosophical hypotheses, with emerging yet scarce empirical data. This study aimed to examine the prevalence and frequency of self-deception in the general population, gather real-life examples, and explore essential elements and characteristics of self-deception (e.g., intentionality, awareness, motivations, contradictory evidence, strategies used to maintain self-deception). Participants (N= 228 university students, Mage = 21.7, SDage = 2.46, 71.9% women; the total number of respondents varied per question) received a mixed-methods survey with open-ended and multiple-choice questions on experiences of self-deception. Dispositional self-deception was also measured using the Self-Deceptive Enhancement Scale of the Paulhus Deception Scales (PDS; Paulhus, 1998). Findings revealed a high prevalence of self-deception (91.3%, n = 200) with high reported frequency (50.5%, n = 122). Participants reported denying and exaggerating information, due primarily to intrapersonal motivations (e.g., increased well-being and self-confidence). Self-deception was maintained by largely ignoring or avoiding contradictory evidence, and new evidence and social feedback led to its retraction. Notably, while dispositional self-deception was lower in our sample than in normative populations, it was negatively associated with the reported frequency of (situational) self-deception. The study discusses the importance of understanding essential elements and characteristics of self-deception in everyday situations and its relevance for legal settings.